Corocticus, King of Alt Clut (c.410 - c.450)

The first king of Alt Clut, Coroticus was a powerful Celtic monarch who ruled a considerable swathe of southern Scotland from his base on Dumbarton Rock. The history of Alt Clut during the fifth and sixth centuries is murky at best and what little is known comes from Irish and Welsh sources. Because of this, Coroticus, like many other fifth century rulers, is sometimes referred to by the Welsh version of his name, Ceretic Guletic.

Dunbarton Rock, the stronghold of the Kings of Alt Clut for five hundred years

Medieval genealogies list Coroticus as the son of Cynloup, the grandson of Quintillus and the great-grandson of Clemens. The Roman names of his grandfather and great-grandfather suggest that Coroticus was descended from Damnonii leaders who, although they lived some way north of Hadrian’s Wall, were Romanised to some extent. However, Coroticus is a British name and it has been suggested that he was named after Caratacus of the Catuvellauni, a then-legendary leader of a British revolt against the Romans.

Not much is known of his reign in the dark days of sub-Roman Britain. Coroticus was almost certainly the Brittonic warrior addressed in a letter written by St. Patrick in which the priest condemns the capture and enslavement of Irish Christians and their sale to pagans before excommunicating Coroticus and his men. It’s possible that St. Patrick’s letter referred to a bloody raid on Ireland led by Coroticus and his men which resulted in the death and enslavement of many Irish, some of which were Christian converts. Coroticus’s response to the letter, if any, has gone unrecorded.

It’s thought that Coroticus died around 450 and was succeeded either by his son, Cinuit, or possibly his grandson, Dumnagual Hen. His descendants went on to rule kingdoms as far south as the Isle of Man and Alt Clut itself would survive until the late ninth century when Dumbarton would be captured and sacked by the Norse kings of Dublin.

Vortigern (fl.425 AD?)

Shrouded in legend, Vortigern is a shadowy and semi-mythical early British leader who existed in the first half of the fifth century. There are no contemporary records that have survived and what little we know of him comes from legend and semi-historical tracts written centuries after his death.

Vortigern came to power sometime in the early fifth century, possibly as early as 425, or as late as 445 and possibly came from a noble Romano-British family with a powerbase in southern Wales. He is remembered in legend as the High-King of Britain, a position he achieved through treachery and murder. However, Gildas, a historian writing in the sixth century, merely writes that Vortigern was one of a council, perhaps a civitas leader or magistrate; less of a high-king and more of a first-among-equals. Of his early leadership, very little is mentioned. Some sources claim that he married Sevira, a daughter of Magnus Maximus, and had three sons, named in the Historia Brittonum as Vortimer, Catigern and Pascent. Vortigern may also have been involved in a power struggle with Ambrosius Aurelianus, another powerful Romano-British leader, who he defeated in battle in c.437.

Vortigern is a prominent figure in medieval Welsh legend. This illustration shows Vortigern (in the fur lined gown) being shown two battling dragons by Emrys, the boy-wizard. The red dragon symbolises the British and the white symbolises the Germanic invaders. 

Vortigern is immortalised in legend as the man who, in 446, foolishly and shortsightedly invited the Saxon princes, Hengist and Horsa, to settle in Kent in return for protection. Employing one barbarian tribe to defend against another was a standard Roman practice and it worked. Pict and Scottish raids ceased and, for a while, the Britons and Saxons lived peacefully. Exactly where the mercenaries settled is uncertain; legend has it that they settled on the Isle of Thanet while Gildas rather vaguely mentions that they settled someone in the east. 

Some years later, either the Saxons or the Britons rose up against the other. The traditional version is that, Vortigern, drunk at a celebratory feast, fell deeply in love with Rowena, Hengist’s daughter, and promised Hengist whatever he wanted in exchange for her hand in marriage. The Kingdom of Kent was Hengist’s price and Vortigern agreed. Understandably, the British revolted, overthrew Vortigern, put his eldest son, Vortimer, on the throne and battled against the Saxons. Gildas, on the other hand, writes that the Saxons revolted over a disagreement over payment. Yet another version claims that Hengist, realising how poor the British defences were, decided to take the opportunity and seize Kent for himself.

Vortigern’s last mention in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was in 455. It’s likely his kingship effectively ended with the Saxon revolt. Whether he died or disappeared is unknown. Legend says that Vortigern fought alongside his sons and was betrayed yet again at the Night of the Long Knives, a peace conference where the Saxons murdered the British in cold blood and forced Vortigern to surrender the kingdoms of Essex and Sussex in return for his life. Vortigern then fled to his powerbase in Powys where he was killed by Ambrosius Aurelianus. His two eldest sons, Vortimer and Catigern, died fighting the Saxons while his third son, Pascent, is named as an early ancestor of the Kings of Powys.

Ednyfed, King of Dyfed (fl. 400)

If the tangled royal dynasties of sub-Roman Wales can be trusted, Ednyfed was a member of a powerful and influential Welsh dynasty founded in the fourth century. He was the son of Anwn Dynod and a grandson of Magnus Maximus. His cousin, Mor ap Owain, was the king of Cernyw, and he was linked by marriage to the royal dynasties of Dumnonia, Gwent and Powys.

Ednyfed inherited his father's powerbase in southwest Wales in the early fifth century. The area was then still known as Demetia after the local Celtic tribe, the Dematae, but would become corrupted to Dyfed within the next couple of generations.

Very little is known as Ednyfed's reign. Like his father, he may still have considered himself more Roman than Welsh and ruled as a Roman-style protector rather than a true king. Roman troops had withdrawn from Britain in 410 AD and the kingdom of Demetia appears to have weathered this turbulent time fairly well. Desai mercenaries, led by Aed Brosc and the later by his son, Urb, helped defend the Dyfed coast against Irish raiders just as they had done under Anwn Dynod.

Ednyfed married a woman whose name has been lost to history and had at least two sons, Clotri and Dyfanwal. He died around 410 AD and was succeeded by Clotri. His second son, Dyfanwal, may have become a sub-king; if this is true then it suggests a slow return to Celtic-style leadership in which kingdoms are split between heirs. 

Urb mac Aed (fl. 391 AD)

Urb mac Aed, along with the rest of the Deisi, settled along the
Dyfed coast and protected Demetia from Irish raiders in the
fourth and fifth centuries.

Urb was the son of Aed Brosc and, like his father, was a Deisi chieftain and warrior in the late fourth century. The Deisi had fled Ireland two generations earlier after a failed bid for independence had infuriated the Irish High King. The homeless Deisi were employed as mercenaries in 382 AD by Magnus Maximus, the Commander of Britain and later Western Roman Emperor. In return for protecting the kingdom of Demetia (later to become Dyfed), the Deisi were given land along the coast. Aed Brosc is thought to have died sometime around 405 AD and it's presumed that Urb, as his eldest son, inherited his leadership. 

Very little is known of Urb. Presumably he and the rest of the Deisi continued to defend the Dyfed coast against Irish raiders. Urb had at least one son, Cormac, and a younger brother, Triffyn, who would go on to marry Gweldyr, the sole heiress of Demetia and become King of Dyfed. At some point in the 390s, Urb moved his family east to the Brecon Beacons where, two generations later, his grandson, Brychen, would found the kingdom of Brycheiniog in the mid-fifth century. His death is not recorded and it's probable that his son, Cormac, became the chieftain of the Deisi. 

Manau-Gododdin

Manau-Gododdin, a tiny sub-kingdom in northern Britain
and a buffer zone between the Picts and Britons.

Located on a narrow strip of land on the south coast of the Firth of Forth, Manau-Gododdin was a small and little-known sub-kingdom of Goutodin. North of the Forth was Pictish Manau, and it is possible that the people of Manau-Gododdin may have been Picts under British Votadini over-lordship. This over-lordship may have stemmed from the early second century when Votadini troops in the pay of Rome were stationed within Manau territory to fend off Pictish attacks. When the Romans withdrew from Britain, the Votadini retreated to the other side of the Forth, but kept hold of Manau-Gododdin.

Manau-Gododdin’s most famous son is undoubtedly Cunedda Wlendig, an early fifth century chieftain and sub-king who migrated to Wales, founded the Kingdom of Gwynedd and started a royal dynasty from which Welsh nobility claimed descent for centuries afterward. By the late fifth century, Manau-Gododdin appears to have lost its independent identity, implying the sub-kingdom had been brought under the direct control of Goutodin. From then, the people of Manau-Gododdin presumably shared the same fortunes as their overlords and it is very likely warriors from Manau-Gododdin were involved in Morgan Bulc’s fruitless efforts to regain Bernaccia in 590 and the disastrous defeat at the Battle of Caltreath in 597.

Squeezed by the Picts expanding southwards and the Northumbrians expanding northwards, Manau-Gododdin fell along with Goutodin in 638 and by the middle of the seventh century had been absorbed into an increasingly powerful Kingdom of Northumbria. Three centuries later, in 975, the Goutodin territories were transferred to the Scottish Crown.

Cunedda Wledig (fl. 430 AD)

Cunedda and his band of Romanised Picts travelled south to 

Wales and drove out the Irish who had settled there several

generations earlier. He may have been employed as a 

mercenary by the Romano-British authorities or simply seized 

an opportunity to carve out a kingdom.

Cunedda Wledig was a powerful warrior prince from Manau-Gododdin who migrated to Wales in the early fifth century and founded a dynasty from which Welsh nobility would claim ancestry for centuries afterward.

According to tradition, Cunedda was descended from a line of Votadini chieftains whose Latinised names suggest they ruled in some sort of official Roman capacity north of Hadrian’s Wall. By Cunedda’s time, the Manau-Gododdin was a sub-kingdom of Goutodin and it is likely that Cunedda was some sort of leader or sub-king. Not much is known of his life in the north. Cunedda must have been a charismatic warrior as he was able to rally the beleaguered Romano-British to fight off constant Irish and Pictish raids. Perhaps because of his actions, Cunedda managed to secure a politically advantageous marriage to Gwawl, a daughter of Coel Hen, and is claimed to have had nine sons and at least two daughters.

At some point in the early fifth century, maybe around 430, Cunedda and his warband migrated southwest to Wales. His wife, Gwawl, appears to have gone with him, as did his younger sons. His eldest son, Typaun, remained behind in Manau-Gododdin and presumably inherited whatever role it was that Cunedda relinquished when he left. According to legend, Cunedda was offered land in return for ousting Irish raiders (named as the Ui Liathain from Munster) who had invaded and settled along the Welsh coastline during the last century. Nennius, writing centuries later, wrote that Cunedda and his warband arrived in Wales “and with great slaughter they drove out from these regions the Scotti who never returned again to inhabit them”.

Alternatively, it has been suggested that Cunedda may have sailed down the Irish Sea of his own volition and invaded North Wales, establishing himself a kingdom during the chaos that resulted from a plague that swept southern Britain in 446 and the subsequent Saxon laeti revolt. Northern Wales had been governed by Custennin, a son of Magnus Maximus, but presumably Custennin had either died by this point or unable to put up much resistance. 

With only the westernmost parts of Wales remaining in Irish hands, Cunedda settled down in Gwynedd and founded both a kingdom and a dynasty. His sons went on to found royal dynasties of their own in kingdoms which would later be named after them; Ceredigion, Meirionnydd, Ysfeilion, Rhufoniog, Dunoding, Afflogion and Edeyrnion.

Aed Brosc (fl. 382 - 405?)

There was a lot of Irish migration to Wales in
the fourth century. The Desai fled Ireland after
a failed bid for independence and eventually
settled in Dyfed as mercenaries.

Aed Brosc was a warrior and key figure from the Desai tribe who had settled along the Dyfed coast in southwestern Wales in the late fourth century. Several years before, his grandfather, Eochaid Allmuir, had led a failed bid for independence which had been severely crushed by the Irish High King. Fearing retribution, the Desai fled Ireland, sailing across the Irish Sea to Britain.

The Roman Commander of Britain at the time was Magnus Maximus, who would later go on to become Western Roman Emperor. At a time when Roman military strength was stretched, he made very effective use of mercenaries to protect the remoter parts of Britain. The Desai, led by Aed Brosc, were allowed to settle in Dementia (modern-day Dyfed) in 382 AD and in return became mercenaries, protecting the Dyfed coast against Irish raiders. This arrangement continued after Magnus Maximus's death in 388 AD. One of Magnus Maximus's sons, Anwn Dynod, had been given authority over Demetia sometime in the 380s and it appears that Aed Brosc fought alongside him to drive off the Irish warbands that continued to plague the Welsh coast.

Not much is known about Aed Brosc personally. He must have been a strong character to lead a dispossessed tribe across the Irish Sea, and also a loyal man who helped protect his new homeland even as Roman authority crumbled. He had at least two sons and indirectly founded two royal dynasties. The descendants of his eldest son, Urb, would found the kingdom of Brycheiniog in the mid-fifth century and his younger son, Triffyn, would go on to marry Gweldyr, the sole surviving heiress of the Demetian kings in 421 AD. Aed Brosc's death is not recorded but he probably died before the Roman withdrawal in 410 AD.

Anwn Dynod / Antonius Donatus Gregorius (c.382 - c.400?)

When Magnus Maximus left Britain to pursue his imperial ambitions on the continent, he left behind his British wife, Elen Lwyddog, and their children. Having become Western Roman Emperor in 383 AD, and perhaps foreseeing the fading of Roman administration in the provinces, Magnus Maximus returned to Britain and began transferring local authority to local leaders. This extended to his sons - Owain Finddu, Anwn Dynod and Custennin - who were given control of territories in Wales. 

Anwn Dynod's protectorate was based in southwestern
Wales, centred on the territories of the Demetae tribe.
Over time, the territory became the kingdom of Dyfed.

Like his brothers, Anwn Dynod - otherwise known as Antonius Donatus Gregorius -  appears to have been accepted by the Britons as a leader. His protectorate of Southwest Wales was centred on the territories of the Celtic Demetae tribe and his capital was most likely at Moridunum (modern-day Caermarthen). Anwn Dynod would have ruled more as a Roman governor rather than a Celtic king and, although he and his brothers have been given Welsh names by later chroniclers, it's much more likely they would have considered themselves Roman.

As Roman control over the remote areas of Britain crumbled in the late fourth century, Irish warbands started to raid along the Welsh coast, seizing booty in the form of cattle, corn and captives to sell into slavery. Much of Anwn's reign was spent fighting off these raiders with the help of Aed Brosc and his Desai warriors who had been settled in southwestern Wales several years earlier by Magnus Maximus. 

Anwn Dynod's death is not recorded but he probably didn't live to see the Roman withdrawal in 410 AD. It is entirely possible that, like his brother, Owain, he was killed in battle with the Irish. He was succeeded by his son, Ednyfed - or Demetius to give him his Roman name - who later founded the kingdom of Dyfed.

Owain Finddu (c.383 - c.440)

An early king of Mid-South Wales, Owain Finddu - or Eugenius to give him his Roman name -  is a shadowy historical figure about whom little is known for sure. Tradition claims him as a son of Magnus Maximus, the Western Roman Emperor, and his British wife, Elen Lwyddog. The royal genealogies for the early Dark Ages in Britain are seriously tangled due to inventive medieval genealogists who, desperate to claim descent from Romano-British power, played havoc with names, dates and lineages. It's probable than a man named Owain Finddu did exist, but it is entirely possible that Magnus Maximus was not his father. 

Post-Roman Wales. Owain would have ruled the area of
Gywysing in southern Wales. Gwent, to the east, was
taken over by Vortigern in c.430 AD.

Tradition states that after the fading of Roman power in Britain, Magnus Maximus made his three sons - Owain Finddu, Anwn Dynod, and Custennin - protectors of areas of Wales. Owain was most likely based at Tamium (modern-day Cardiff) and his protectorate stretched across much of modern-day Glamorganshire in South Wales. This western chunk of what had been Silures territory was the most Romanised part of Wales and Owain would have ruled more as a Roman-style governor rather than a Celtic king. 

Given the chaos of the Roman withdrawal in the early fourth century, Owain's reign seems to have been fairly stable. By around 430 AD, however, he appears to lose control of Ewyas, an area to the west, to his brother-in-law, Vortigern. Vortigern granted his new territory to his son, Vortimer, and a new Welsh kingdom emerged by the name of Gwent. Perhaps in recognition of this loss, Owain's territory of Mid-South Wales was renamed Cernyw around 437 AD. 

Like his father, mother and siblings, Owain makes an appearance in medieval Welsh folktales, especially the Mabinogion which records his death in around 440 AD. According to the legend, Owain and his younger brother, Custennin, were escorting their mother through the dangerous mountains of Snowdonia when they were attacked near by Cidwn, an evil giant. In the fierce battle that followed, Owain managed to kill the giant but was mortally wounded. On his deathbed, he shot an arrow into the sky and asked to be buried where it fell.

It is not known for sure how Owain died. As Roman control of Britain crumbled, Irish warbands started to raid along the Welsh coast and even up the Severn, seizing booty in the form of cattle, corn and even children, including the young St. Patrick. Given his geographical location, it's likely that Owain died at the hands of Irish raiders - a humdrum death spiced up by later medieval chroniclers. After his death, he was succeeded by his son, Mor. 

Custennin Fawr (c.380s - ? AD)

Custennin Fawr was an early king of North Wales who may or may not have existed. The only mentions of him are in unreliable royal genealogies and medieval Welsh legend, especially the cycle of folktales contained within the Mabinogion.  According to the myths of the Mabinogion, Custennin was the youngest son of Magnus Maximus, the Roman Emperor, and his British wife, Elen Lwyddog, otherwise known as St. Elen of the Hosts. The royal genealogies show that after the collapse of Roman power in Britain, Custennin and his brothers, Anwn Dynod and Owain Finddu, were granted kingships in Wales by their powerful father. At least two of his sisters married powerful kings in other parts of Britain; Gratiana married Tudwal ap Gwrfawr of Dumnonia and Severa married Vortigen, King of Powys and later High King of Britain.

The royal genealogies for the early Dark Ages in Britain are seriously tangled due to inventive medieval genealogists who, desperate to claim descent from Romano-British power, played havoc with names, dates and lineages. It is entirely possible that neither Elen Lwyddog nor her children existed at all. The existence of Custennin is particularly doubtful. Custennin Fawr is Welsh for Constantine the Great and there appears to be almost willful confusion between him and the Roman Emperor Constantine I whose mother was St. Helen. 

If Custennin did exist. then he may have been a dux, a provincial Roman governor, who took on a role of kingship as Roman administration faded in the early fifth century. Alternatively he may have been an opportunistic Romano-British aristocrat who seized power in the wake of the Roman withdrawal. Whatever the case, his deeds as King of North Wales and how he earned the epitaph "the Great" have been completely forgotten by history. By the 430s, Cunedda Wledig and his warband of Romanised Picts had carved out a kingdom in North Wales so it is presumed that Custennin was either dead by this point or gave up his kingdom with little resistance. 

Coel Hen (c.350 - 420 AD)

Named in Celtic tradition as the High King of Northern Britain, Coel Hen was a prominent figure in many ancient genealogies. Many of the kingdoms of northern Britain and Wales were ruled by his descendants and he is preserved in legend as the founding ancestor of the Men of the North - the kings of northern Britain and southern Scotland.

Mention of Coel Hen in an ancient Welsh genealogy, Y Commrodor

With the fading of central Roman administration in the early fifth century, regional governors known as dux were appointed to manage the protection of the island in the face of increasing barbarian raids. Brittania Secunda, the province of northern Britain, was placed into the care of a man named as Coel Hen – Cole the Old. From his headquarters in Ebrauc (York), Coel ruled a huge area of the north which stretched from Ebrauc to Hadrian’s Wall and possibly even beyond into the territory of Goutodin. The old Celtic traditions returned quickly in the north and it's likely that Coel Hen gradually took on the role of a king rather than a dux. Very little is known of Coel Hen personally but he must have been a charismatic and determined leader as he managed to turn northern Britain from a province which looked to Rome for its defence to an independent kingdom capable of defending itself.

Coel’s efforts meant that he was regarded as the first King of the North and he is familiar to many of us as Old King Cole from the nursery rhyme. Coel died in around 420 and his death is preserved in Welsh legend. The story goes that during Coel’s time as High King, Scotti settlers from Ulster had settled on the western coast of Pictland. Concerned that the Picts and Scots would join forces against the British, Coel sent raiders across his northern borders to stir up trouble between them. Coel’s ruse didn't fool anyone and the Picts and the Scots retaliated by attacking Alt Clut. Enraged, Coel and his army stormed north and the Picts and the Scots fled into the hills. Flushed with victory, Coel chased after them and set up camp in what is now Ayrshire. Sometime later, starving and desperate, the Picts and Scots advanced in an all-or-nothing attack on Coel’s stronghold. Taken by surprise, Coel and the northern British scattered in panic. Lost and alone, Coel wandered through the unfamiliar countryside of Argyll until he fell into a bog and drowned – an inglorious end for the first High King of Northern Britain.

On his death, Coel’s kingdom was divided between his two sons with the eldest, Ceneu, taking Ebrauc and his youngest, Gorbanian, inheriting Bernaccia. His daughter, Gwawl, had been married off to Cunedda Wledig and the pair had founded a kingdom and spawned several royal dynasties of their own in North Wales. His descendants, the northern British and Welsh kings of the sixth century, would stubbornly resist Teutonic invasion until their calamitous defeat at the Battle of Catreath in 597.

Pascent, King of Builth (c.406 - 440)

Britain in 400 AD. Vortigern's powerbase of Powys was divided
into three portions, one for each of his sons. Pascent ruled the
kingdom of Builth in central Wales.

Pascent was the third and youngest son of Vortigern and Sevira, a daughter of Magnus Maximus. His father was probably from a powerful family in Powys and through his mother, he was related to the royal dynasties of Dumnonia, Demetia and Cernyw. 

Sometime in the early fifth century, Vortigern came to power as High-King of Britain and divided the nascent kingdom of Powys into three portions, one for each of his sons. Vortimer, his eldest son, took control of Gwent, his second son, Catigern, was given the Pagenses, and Pascent received the smaller territories of Builth and Gwerthrynion.

Pascent was the only one of Vortigern's sons to outlive his father. His father was overthrown by a Saxon revolt led by Hengist and Horsa in Kent and both of his elder brothers died in battle soon after. Not much is known of his life. Like his father, he has his own set of legends and the Historia Brittonum, written in the twelfth century, records an entirely mythological account of his reign and lifelong enmity with Ambrosius Aurelianus. 

Even though his brothers predeceased him, Pascent seems to have respected their heirs and there is no record of any attempts to overthrow his young nephews or expand his own kingdom. He married a woman whose name has been lost to history and had at least two sons, Braciat and Morgan. He died around 440 AD and was succeeded by Braciat. His younger son, Morgan, may have ruled as a sub-king, as was usual in the Celtic tradition.

Venta Belgarum (Roman Winchester)

Established in 70 AD on the site of an abandoned Iron Age hill fort, Venta Belgarum was the civitas, or capital, of the Celtic Belgae tribe who territory covered much of modern-day Hampshire in southern Britain. Venta Belgarum appears to have been a thriving and prosperous Romano-British town. An earth bank and ditch had encircled the town by the second century and stone city walls were erected a century later. Archaelogical excavations have revealed that Venta Belgarum had many fine Roman townhouses complete with mosaics, large public buildings and temples dedicated to the Roman gods Jupiter, Juno and Minerva as well as the Celtic horse goddess, Epona. Outside of the city walls were extensive suburbs as well as two large Romano-British cemeteries to the north and west.

A mosiac from one of Venta Belgarum's townhouses, now in Winchester museum

However, Venta Belgarum did not escape the general decline that Britain suffered in the fourth century as the Roman Empire began to collapse. Houses and public buildings began to fall into disrepair and the drainage system collapsed. Testament to the increasing threat of Germanic raiders (and possibly on the advice of Constans who made a short and unusual visit to Britain in 343 AD), the city's defences were strengthened and there is archaeological evidence for the presence of laeti, South German mercenaries, who helped defend Venta Belgarum in return for land outside the city.

A map showing the territory of the Belgae tribe and the later Romano-British kingdom of Caer Gwinntguic

By the early fifth century, Venta Belgarum and it's surrounding territory had become Caer Gwinntguic, a sub-Roman British territory tasked with defending the westernmost section of the Saxon Shore. The 420s and 430s saw a second settlement of laeti, this time from North Germany and almost certainly Saxons. Jutish settlement to the east posed a potential threat to the territory but peaceful relations appear to have been quickly established, possibly due to the low numbers of the newcomers and/or integration with the long-settled Germanic mercenaries. 

For the next chapter in the story, see Caer Gwinntguic.

Constans (c.323 - 350 AD)

Constans was born in 323 AD, the third and youngest son of Constantine I and his second wife, Fausta. He was educated at his father's court in Constantinople and in 333 AD, at ten years old, was elevated to Caesar. 

Constantine I died in 337 AD, leaving Constans and his two elder brothers, Constantine II and Constantius II, as co-emperors and their cousins, Dalmatius and Hannibalius, as Caesars. This arrangement, made two years earlier, barely lasted a month as the three brothers swiftly arranged the murders of Dalmatius and Hannibalius as well as virtually all other relatives who could have had a claim to the throne. 

Roman coins engraved with Constans' name and image

Constans' share of the Roman world was Italia and the African provinces, a small portion when compared to the territories of his two elder brothers. A meeting of the three brothers in Viminacium (modern-day Serbia) in 338 AD granted Constans the additional territories of Illyricum and Thrace. This increase of Constans' power hugely annoyed his eldest brother, Constantine II, who ruled the western provinces. 

In an attempt to maintain the fragile peace, Constans handed the African provinces to Constantine II but he became ever more reluctant to accept his eldest brother's seniority. Tensions between the brothers heightened when Constantine II refused to hand over the guardianship of his younger brother's territories when Constans came of age. Things came to a head when, in 340 AD, Constantine II invaded Italy. Constans, busy suppressing a rebellion in Dacia, desperately dispatched a small unit of Illyrian troops who, against all odds, managed to ambush and kill Constantine II near the town of Aquileia in northern Italy. Constans seized control over his brother's former provinces of Gaul, Britain and Hispania and became joint-emperor with Constantius II.

Constans had an energetic start to his reign. In 341 AD he lead a successful campaign against the Franks and in 343 AD made a short and unusual visit to Britain. The reason for Constans' trip to one of his remotest provinces is unrecorded but it was followed by widespread re-fortification of towns and the appearance of Germanic mercenaries in East Anglia and along the southeastern coast. His relationship with Constantius was strained at best. Like their father, both brothers became entangled in the squabbles of the various sects of the early Christian Church and their religious differences almost led to open warfare. However, in 346 AD, the co-emperors simply agreed to disagree.

In the final years of his reign, Constans gained an unsavory reputation for cruelty, misrule and 'scandalous behaviour with handsome barbarian hostages'. Crucially, he became unpopular with the army and in 350 AD a Roman general by the name of Magnentius declared himself emperor at Augustodunum (modern-day Autun, France) with the support of the Roman troops in the western provinces. With no support beyond his immediate household, Constans was forced to flee for his life. However, he was swiftly cornered by Magnentius's men in the Pyrenees and killed while seeking sanctuary in a temple in Vicus Helena (modern-day Elne, France).

Magnentius' rebellion lasted less than a year. Constantius II defeated the usurper twice in battle and reclaimed his brother's territories, ruling as sole emperor until elevating his cousin, Constantius Gallus, to Caesar in 351 AD.

Constantine II (317 - 340 AD)

Constantine II was born at Arelate (modern-day Arles, France), the eldest son of Constantine I and his second wife, Fausta. His date of birth is recorded as February 317 AD but this is doubtful as his younger brother, Constantius, was born in August the same year. It's possible that he was actually born a year earlier in 316 AD or, and this is entirely possible, Constantine II was illegitimate and not Fausta's son at all.

Constantine I was relentless when it came to securing power and status for both Constantine and his elder half-brother, Crispus. Less than a year after his birth, Constantine II had been elevated to the rank of Caesar and by 320 AD was a counsel, the highest political office in the Roman Empire. This shameless promotion of infants too young to sign their own names was a huge source of friction between Constantine I and his co-emperor, Licinius who was eventually deposed by Constantine I in 324 AD. 

A statue of Constantine II in Rome

Constantine I also made sure his sons held respected, but naturally ceremonial, military positions. At the tender age of seven, Constantine accompanied his father on campaigns against the Sarmatians in 323 AD and, three years later, was made Commander of Gaul after the death of Crispus. How Crispus died is unclear; he may have been executed for treason or adultery or even assassinated on the orders of Constantine I in order to clear the way for the succession of his three other sons. 

Constantine I died in 337 AD, leaving his three sons, Constantine II, Constantius and the teenage Constans, as co-emperors with their cousins, Dalmatius and Hannibalius, as Caesars. This arrangement, made two years earlier, collapsed as the three brothers swiftly arranged the slaughter of the rest of the family. The Roman Empire was split three ways with Constantine II taking control over Gaul, Britain and Hispania and acting as guardian for Constans who, at only fourteen years old, was too young to rule on his own.

Almost immediately, and perhaps inevitably, the brothers began to argue among themselves. Both Constantine II and Constantius got involved in the squabbling between the different sects of the early Christian church. Constantine started demanding a larger portion of the empire as the eldest son and was given the African provinces by Constans, who sought to maintain the fragile peace.

More squabbles followed when Constantine II, having got used to controlling large swathes of the empire, refused to relinquish control when Constans came of age. Understandably, Constans became increasingly unwilling to accept his elder brother as the senior emperor. Things came to a head when Constantine II declared war on his brother and marched his troops into Italy in 340 AD. Constans, who was in Dacia at the time, immediately dispatched a small unit of his Illyrian troops who managed to ambush and kill Constantine II near Aquileia, Italy. Constantine II left no legitimate heirs and his share of the empire was seized and ruled by Constans.

Constantine the Great (c.272 - 337)

Constantine the Great, also known as Constantine I or Saint Constantine, was Roman Emperor from 306 until his death in 337 AD. He is famous for being the first Roman Emperor to convert to Christianity.

Born in Serbia in about 272 AD, Constantine was the son of Constantius, a Roman military officer, and Helena, a concubine. The Roman Empire at that time was ruled by two senior co-emperors, or Augusti, one in the east and one in the west, and at least two junior emperors, known as Caesars. Constantine's father rose swiftly through the military ranks and eventually became Caesar of Britain, Gaul and Spain in 293 AD. Constantine was sent to the court of Diocletian, the Eastern Augustus, probably as a high-status hostage to ensure his father's cooperation. 

Constantine was educated at Diocletian's court, became a tribune, a sort of aristocratic military officer, and campaigned in Syria, Mesopotamia and along the Danube. While in the east, he also witnessed Diocletian's savage persecution of Christians. In 305 AD, Diocletian abdicated, as did his co-emperor in the west, Maximian. Constantine's father, Constantius, was elevated to western Augustus and, to great surprise, a man named Galarius was chosen to succeed Diocletian. Constantine was ignored completely, as was Maxentius, the son of Maximian. 

Perhaps fearing for his son's life at Galarius's court, Constantius immediately recalled Constantine to Britain to campaign with him against the Picts. Less than a year later, Constantius died at Eboracum (modern-day York). Roman troops in Britain and Gaul quickly proclaimed Constantine as the new western Augustus. Furious, but unwilling to risk a military revolt, Galarius had no choice but to accept Constantine as emperor of Britain, Gaul and Spain. 

A statue of Constantine the Great in York, where he was first proclaimed emperor in 306 AD

Galarius' death in 311 AD triggered a series of dynastic wars as various successors, including Constantine, Maximian and Maxentius, struggled for power. It was on the eve of one of these battles that Constantine is said to have converted to Christianity. The story goes that Christ appeared to Constantine in a dream and showed him a flaming cross in the sky with the words In hoc signo vinces - in this sign you shall conquer. Constantine did win the battle and ultimately the war, emerging victorious in 313 AD as the western Augustus. Nine years later, Constantine deposed his co-emperor to become sole ruler of both east and west. 

Constantine the Great is revered as a
saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church. His
feast day is the 21 May.

As emperor, Constantine earned his epitaph by campaigning successfully against the tribes on the Empire's frontiers and even managing to resettle territories lost during the last century. He restructured the government, separated military and civil authority and reorganised the army.

One of his biggest legacies, however, was rejecting Rome as the most important city in the empire and building himself a new capital in the east, modestly naming it Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul). By building his capital at Constantinople, Constantine effectively founded what would later become the Byzantine Empire.

Constantine is most famous as the first Roman Emperor to convert to Christianity. When he converted is a matter for debate. Tradition has him converting on the eve of battle in 312 AD, but, as his mother was Christian, he may have converted as a young boy or he may have adopted the faith gradually over his life.

Even during his early reign in Britain and Gaul, Constantine was tolerant of Christianity and discouraged persecution. In 313 AD, he and his co-emperor signed the Edict of Milan, allowing Christians to practice their faith openly and freely. Constantine also encouraged church leaders to come together to solve contentious issues at meetings such as the Council of Nicaea in 325 AD. Constantine's tolerance of Christianity meant that the Christian faith flourished and smoothed the way for it becoming the dominant religion in Europe.

After a short illness, Constantine died in 337 in Nicomedia (modern-day Iznit, Turkey), a day after being baptized in the River Jordan, and was succeeded by his three sons, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans.

Magnus Maximus (? - 388 AD)

Magnus Maximus was born in Gallaecia (northwestern Spain) on the estates of Count Theodosius, a senior military officer. He may have been a relative of Count Theodosius, or his family may have simply been workers on the estate.

Maximus distinguished himself as a military leader from a young age. He may have been stationed in Britain in 368 AD as a junior officer where he helped to repel Pictish and Scottish invaders who were attempting to capitalise on the depleted military garrison in Britain after Magnentius' unsuccessful bid to become emperor twenty years earlier. In 372 AD, Maximus served under Count Theodosius in Africa and then in 376 AD he campaigned along the Danube. His efforts were rewarded in 380 AD when he was made Commander of Britain.

The Roman Empire at that time was ruled by Gratian in the west and Theodosius I, the son of Count Theodosius, in the east. Gratian was an unpopular emperor, especially with the legions, and in 383 AD, Maximus was proclaimed emperor by his troops in Britain. Maximus immediately left the province, taking most of the army with him, and defeated Gratian in battle near Paris. Buoyed by his success, and with his army swelled by those who had deserted Gratian, Maximus marched on Italy to overthrow Gratian's son, the twelve year emperor Valentinian II. He was only prevented from doing so by the military intervention of Theodosius I. Theodosius I, wanting to protect Valentinian II and concerned with his own troubles in the east, reluctantly made Maximus emperor of Gaul, Britain, Hispania and the African Provinces while Valentinian II kept Italy. 

Magnus Maximus was a popular emporer. Although he established his capital at Augusta Trevorum (Trier, France), Maximus returned regularly to Britain to campaign against the Picts and Scots in support of Rome's long-standing Celtic allies in southern Scotland. He used foederati (mercenary forces) to great effect and while in Britain, it is likely he started to transfer local powers to local rulers, such as Coel Hen in the north. Like Theodosius I, Maximus was a Christian emperor who persecuted pagans and heretical Christians, although he appears to have been tolerant of other faiths, even reprimanding Christians in Rome for burning down a synagogue in 387 AD.

In 387 AD, Maximus elevated his infant son, Flavius Victor, to co-emperor. Later the same year, Maximus once again invaded Italy, forcing Valentinian II to flee from Milan to the court of Theodosius I. With his troubles in the east solved, Theodosius marched west and defeated Maximus at the Battle of the Save (modern-day Croatia) in 388 AD. With his top general and brother dead, Maximus retreated to Aquileia in northern Italy where he quickly surrendered.  

Despite his pleas for mercy, Magnus Maximus was executed as a traitor in 388 AD. His young son, Flavius Victor, was also killed although what became of the rest of his family is unclear. Magnus Maximus - or Macsen Wledig, to give him his Welsh name - is a prominent figure in Welsh legend and is listed as a founding ancestor in the genealogies of several Welsh royal dynasties. Tradition has it that he married Elen Lwyddog, a Welsh princess, and his sons and daughters, presumably safe in Britain after his death, went on to found royal dynasties of their own.